The Germans split Army Group South into two groups: Army Group A advanced to the lower Don River and struck south-east to the Caucasus, while Army Group B headed towards the Volga River. By mid-November, the Germans had nearly taken Stalingrad in bitter street fighting. The Soviets decided to make their stand at Stalingrad on the Volga. Rzhev salient near Moscow, though the latter failed disastrously. In mid-February, after the Soviet push had tapered off, the Germans launched another attack on Kharkov, creating a salient in their front line around the Soviet city of Kursk.

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Italy supported the Nationalists to a greater extent than the Nazis: Mussolini sent more than 70,000 ground troops, 6,000 aviation personnel, and 720 aircraft to Spain. More than 30,000 foreign volunteers, known as the International Brigades, also fought against the Nationalists. The Soviet Union supported the existing government of the Spanish Republic. Both Germany and the Soviet Union used this proxy war as an opportunity to test in combat their most advanced weapons and tactics.

American Business, Politics, and Society (reprint ed.). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. United Nations Pubns. p. Tucker & Roberts 2004, p. Bishop, Chris; Chant, Chris (2004). Aircraft Carriers: The World’s Greatest Naval Vessels and Their Aircraft. BBSU 1998, p. 84; Lindberg & Todd 2001, p. Unidas, Naciones (2005). World Economic And Social Survey 2004: International Migration. Klavans, Di Benedetto & Prudom 1997; Ward 2010, pp. Tucker & Roberts 2004, p. Griffith, Charles (1999). The Quest: Haywood Hansell and American Strategic Bombing in World War II.

On 16 December 1944, Germany made a last attempt to split the Allies on the Western Front by using most of its remaining reserves to launch a massive counter-offensive in the Ardennes and along the French-German border, hoping to encircle large portions of Western Allied troops and prompt a political settlement after capturing their primary supply port at Antwerp. In Italy, the Western Allies remained stalemated at the German defensive line. By 16 January 1945, this offensive had been repulsed with no strategic objectives fulfilled. In mid-January 1945, the Red Army attacked in Poland, pushing from the Vistula to the Oder river in Germany, and overran East Prussia.